Technology continues to change the education environment, bringing advantages like the ability to create more interactive lesson plans, invite guest speakers more easily regardless of their location, and increase data collection for more personalized learning. Despite the advantages of technology in general, many teachers and school administrators believe the particular distraction of cell phones outweighs their educational value. To address these challenges, administrators and state lawmakers have created various policies related to cell phone and other devices use in schools, ranging from teacher-managed reminders to stricter district- and state-level bans. While these policies are often colloquially referred to as school cell phone “bans,” what constitutes a ban may be very different in a given district, state, or country. Likewise, while these policies are commonly framed as restrictions on cell phones, they tend to more particularly address smartphones and other internet-enabled devices.
In line with such efforts, New York Governor Kathy Hochul announced a provision to restrict the use of internet-enabled devices for the entirety of the school day when presenting her 2026 Executive Budget Proposal. To facilitate the policy, districts would develop their own implementation plans and the budget would allocate $13.5 million for school districts to purchase phone pouches or other storage devices. The proposed regulations would take effect in the 2025-26 school year and require that all public school districts, charter schools, and Board of Cooperative Education Services (BOCES) comply. Students with medical needs or those with an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that necessitates using an internet-enabled device could be exempted from the restrictions, and students would still be allowed to use phones without internet capability, and internet-enabled devices for classroom purposes.
As state policymakers, educators, and families consider this proposal, this piece summarizes existing research on cell phone usage in schools and its impacts on academic performance, explains recent state-level restrictions and their history, and examines current district-level policies across New York.
Cell Phone Usage and Academic Performance
Researchers have been interested in the causal impact of cell phone usage in schools and academic performance, though to date many of those studies have been conducted outside of the United States. One study, based on data from four English cities, found that students aged 11-16 had increased academic performance after schools banned cell phones, though researchers in Sweden found no relationship between school cell phone bans and academic performance when replicating the study with a different population. While a separate study, focusing on first-year university students in Belgium, found that increased smartphone usage was associated with decreased test scores.
There has been some research examining the efficacy of more recent cell phone restriction policies in the United States. A 2024 study conducted by Yondr, a popular cell phone pouch company, examined more than 37,000 final course grades in middle and high schools collected before and after the implementation of phone restrictions. Results indicated that student academic success rates increased by 6.27% after implementing restrictions using the pouches, with a 38% increase in the probability of passing grades in academically focused classes among students in 11th and 12th grades. The study also reported a 44% decrease in average monthly behavioral referrals and 74% agreement among teachers that students were more attentive and engaged in class after the implementation compared to before the restrictions. Although these studies provide important insights into the impact of cell phone restrictions using phone pouches, more research is needed to fully understand how cell phones affect learning outcomes, and the efficacy of different cell phone restrictions in K-12 schools throughout the United States.
Effects of Increased Cell Phone and Social Media Usage
While data quantifying the learning impacts of cell phone use during the school year is limited, educators are concerned that internet-enabled devices pose a concerning distraction throughout the school day. Additionally, there is a well-established body of research that concludes that the more time a child spends on smartphones, the greater the risk of negative mental health outcomes. One study found that nearly three-quarters of high school teachers and one-third of middle school teachers consider cell phone usage a major distraction.
A Pew Research study conducted in 2018 found that 95% of teens had access to a smartphone and 45% of teens surveyed said that they were almost always constantly online. Other research from Common Sense Media and University of Michigan reported that 97 percent of 11- to 17-year-olds with phones enrolled in their study used their phones during the school day and that the median length of use was 43 minutes. The same study also found that, on average, those students received 237 notifications per day, a quarter of which were received during school hours. On average, US teens spend 4.8 hours a day on social media—with YouTube, TikTok, and Instagram use accounting for an estimated 87 percent of this time. One study found that among teens and children who spend more than three hours a day on social media, the risk of negative mental health outcomes is doubled. A separate analysis similarly found that smartphones’ constant presence can increase anxiety, and the constant comparisons with peers’ lives on social media can decrease feelings of self-worth and lead to more depression. There is a growing consensus based on longitudinal studies and a small number of causal studies that cell phone usage has negative effects on mental health outcomes. These findings also come within the broader context of concerning trends showing a rise in mental health issues among adolescents. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that, in 2021, nearly three in five teen girls felt persistently sad or hopeless. The CDC Youth Risk Behavior Survey also found that nearly one in three high school students seriously considered suicide over the past year, an increase of 60% over the past decade.
There is a growing consensus based on longitudinal studies and a small number of causal studies that cell phone usage has negative effects on mental health outcomes.
History of Cell Phone Bans
Since shortly after cell phones were introduced, schools have had to contend with how to limit the distractions and potential harms they pose to students. The cell phones invented in the 1980s were very different from smartphones available today. These early cell phones were only used for phone calls; but in 1992, short message service (SMS) texting was invented. Today’s devices, by comparison, act as handheld computers, allowing individuals to use social media, access the internet, send and receive emails, play games, and more through a range of apps designed for personal and professional uses.
Prior to the widespread adoption of cell phones, pagers, also known as beepers, were a commonly used technology during the 1980s and 1990s. Pagers are telecommunications devices that receive and display alphanumeric or voice messages. These devices may provide either one-way (only receiving messages) or two-way (capable of sending and receiving messages) communications. Today, pagers are most commonly associated with physicians and used in healthcare settings, but during the 1980s and 1990s, high school students also utilized them—posing a potential distraction. In 1988, in Dade County, Florida, school administrators banned students from possessing pagers and referred to them as, “the most dominant symbol of the drug trade.” Individuals connected with the pager industry pushed back on this assertion, stating that pagers are unfairly associated with the drug industry and that there are legitimate reasons for students to use pagers. But, in 1988, 50 other school districts across the country banned pagers, including a statewide ban for schools in Michigan. In 1989, Maryland became the first state to enact a ban on cell phones and pagers in schools, focused on preventing classroom disruptions and addressing safety concerns, including limiting in-school communication between students that may be involved in illegal activities. This ban included relatively significant penalties, where students could face a $2,500 fine or six months in jail for violating the law. Since then, more schools, municipalities, and states have moved to restrict cell phone use in schools, but in a very uneven pattern over time: in 2009, for example, 91 percent of public schools had reportedly banned cell phones; this number decreased to 66 percent by 2015, before rising to 76 percent by 2021. It is unclear exactly why these shifts occurred but some stakeholders, including parents, have pushed back on cell phone bans at times. Additionally, as technology has continued to develop and expand the uses of related devices—such as Bluetooth-enabled headphones, smart watches, and smart glasses—school, district, and statewide policies have addressed these additional technologies.
Recent State Action on Cell Phones in Schools
Over the last two years, several states have moved to legislatively or administratively established policies that restrict or prohibit the use of cell phones in schools. In May 2024, Florida implemented the first statewide requirement for schools to limit cell phone use during classroom instruction periods. This policy also prohibited the use of social media websites for devices connected to school district Wi-Fi and required students to be taught digital literacy beginning in the sixth grade. Some Florida school districts, such as the Orange County Public Schools, implemented stricter measures, prohibiting cell phone use throughout the entire school day. A statewide evaluation of the policy has not yet occurred, but school staff have reported decreased distractions during school instruction periods and increased meaningful social interactions between students throughout the whole school day in the relatively short period since the policy has been in place.
Louisiana similarly enacted a law in 2024 that limits the use and the possession of cell phones throughout the school day, meaning that if a student brings a cell phone to school, it must be turned off and stored away during the school day. Indiana also passed a law last year prohibiting the use of any portable wireless device (cell phones, gaming devices, laptops, and tablets) during instructional time in schools statewide. The law specifies that there are exceptions, including: if a teacher allows students to use a device for educational purposes, if a student uses a device as part of their individualized education plan (IEP) for a disability or other plan, during emergencies, or for healthcare purposes. And, the law requires each school district to create policies for device usage during non-instructional times such as lunch.
Other states have required that school districts create their own policies. Minnesota’s law mandates that school districts and charter schools create and implement official policies regarding cell phone use by March 15, 2025. Minnesota legislators introduced another bill in February 2025 that would more explicitly restrict cell phones and smart watches in elementary and middle schools and restrict their use in classrooms at the high school level. This new proposal outlines exemptions for necessary medical uses and students with disabilities. Ohio’s law requires each school district to create its own policies regarding cell phone use during the school day by July 1, 2025. This law carves out exemptions for students who require a cell phone to monitor health issues or for student learning as determined by school officials. South Carolina’s State Board of Education recently finalized its statewide policy in September 2024, prohibiting students’ access to unauthorized electronic devices unless specifically for educational or health purposes or for students who volunteer for emergency response organizations. Each school district in South Carolina that receives state funding was required to adopt this policy by January 2025. Governor Glenn Younkin of Virginia issued Executive Order 33 in July 2024, which directed state officials to: solicit public opinion regarding cell phone use in school, create definitions of “cell phone-free education,” and publish model implementation plans and policy guidance to inform public school systems’ phone policies. This executive order also made $500,000 in state funds available to support the implementation of school cell phone policies. In California, during the fall of 2024, the Governor signed the Phone-Free Act, mandating that school districts and charter schools adopt a phone policy that limits or prohibits smartphone use during school by July 1, 2026. This law allows exemptions for medical necessities, emergencies, educational purposes, or with faculty permission. More recently, in February 2025, Arkansas implemented a law that mandates that each school district and charter school create a “bell-to-bell” policy before the 2025-2026 school year, that restricts possession and prohibits use of a personal electronic device during the school day. This law allows exemptions for students with IEPs, students with concurrent enrollment in a higher education institution to utilize two-factor authentication to access coursework, and emergencies or special events.
These efforts continue to be introduced as concerns about student cell phone and social media use persist. For example, in January 2025, Massachusetts Attorney General Andrea Campbell introduced the Safe Technology Use and Distraction-free Education for Youth (STUDY) Act. This bill would require that schools enforce a “bell-to-bell” ban of cell phones and personal electronic devices and educate students on the negative mental health impacts associated with social media.
Federal policymakers have similarly considered cell phone restrictions relative to the guidance it provides K-12 schools. In December 2024, the US Department of Education recommended that all states and districts adopt measures to manage cell phone use in schools. The Department published a guidance playbook that includes example policies districts could adopt and outlines associated considerations, such as how to balance parents’ desires to be in contact with their children throughout the day. Federal representatives also introduced bipartisan legislation in July 2024—the Focus on Learning Act—asking that the US Department of Education conduct studies to more fully understand the impact of cell phone use on students’ academic and mental health outcomes.
| State-Wide Ban or Restriction in Effect | |
|---|---|
| Arkansas | Requires each school-district to create cell phone use policy before 2025-2026 school year. |
| California | Requires each school-district to create policy that limits or entirely prohibits smartphone use policy by July 1, 2026. |
| Florida | State-wide prohibition on cellphones during instruction time, in effect from July, 2024. |
| Indiana | Instructs each school board to create a policy that prohibits any portable wireless device usage during instructional time, in effect from July, 2024. |
| Louisiana | State-wide prohibition on the use and possession of cell phones throughout the school day, in effect from 2024-2025 academic year. |
| Minnesota | Requires school districts & charter schools to create policies on student cell phone use and possession by March 2025. |
| Ohio | Requires every school district to create and implement policies regarding cell phone use at school by July 2025. |
| South Carolina | Requires districts to implement model policy drafted by the State Board by January, 2025. |
| Virginia | Executive Order mandating Department to publish guidance for school districts. Policy guidance implemented January 1, 2025. |
New York Policies
Currently, in New York State, cell phone policies in schools are a patchwork of district-level decisions, encompassing varying approaches to managing phone use in educational settings. For example, the Schoharie School District began to restrict cell phone access throughout the school day in 2022 by requiring that student put their devices in phone pouches, which are sealed using magnetic technology and are released at the end of classes. Similarly, Bethlehem School District implemented phone pouches in 2023, as did the Greater Amsterdam School District in 2024. Lackawanna School District created an all-day cell phone restriction—referred to as “no cell from bell to bell”—beginning in the 2024-25 school year that required the use of phone pouches, which cost an estimated $25-30 per pouch.
Other school districts, such as Averill Park, allow teachers to designate their classroom as a ‘green’ or ‘red’ zone that either permits or strictly prohibits the use of cell phones. Brockport Central School District prohibits cell phones in the classroom and has “cell phone holders” for students to store their phones if they choose to not use their lockers or backpacks for storage. Other larger school districts, such as Rochester School District, allow varying policies by school: some collect phones each day like at James Monroe Junior & High School, while others, like the School of Arts, require phones to be stored away in phone pouches. The current proposal by Governor Kathy Hochul would continue this patchwork approach, but on a district-by-district basis have schools determine how to restrict the use of internet-enabled devices during the school day. Looking across New York’s districts and schools, as well as other states with broader policies, there are a variety of ways in which these policies may be structured and enforced, as outlined below.
Types of Cell Phone Restriction Policies
| Level of Policy | ||
|---|---|---|
| State | District | School |
| Restriction Type | |
|---|---|
| ‘Bell-to-Bell’ restricts usage through the entirety of the school day | Restrictions during instructional time |
| Exemptions | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Medical exemptions | IEP exemptions | Students who volunteer for emergency response organizations | Emergencies & special events |
| Enforcement Type | |
|---|---|
| Teacher enforced | Administrator/Staff enforced |
| Storage Type | ||
|---|---|---|
| Phone pouch / storage device | Stored by students in backpacks/lockers | Daily collection by school staff |
The state’s—and nation’s—largest school district, New York City, implemented a cell phone policy beginning in 2015 under former Mayor Michael Bloomberg. The next mayoral administration, under Bill de Blasio, rolled back the policy, however, because it was reportedly unpopular with parents and logistically hard to enforce. During the fall of 2024, Mayor Eric Adams and New York City Schools Chancellor David Banks spoke publicly about potentially reinstating a district-wide policy, but said it was not the time yet for a ban, citing concerns from parents who struggled to reach their children during recent lockdowns.
Currently, in New York City, individual schools are allowed to make their own policies regarding cell phone use. Some schools collect cell phones at the beginning of the school day using a phone pouch or other storage system. Others in the district allow students to use cell phones during any free period, and still other schools allow students to have their cell phones with them throughout the day and be subject to restricted use only if a teacher sees the phone being used in class.
There appears to be generally widespread support for cell phone bans in New York among different stakeholders. For example, at a gathering at the Capitol in Albany advocating for a statewide ban, New York State United Teachers (NYSUT) president Melinda Person stated, “Research has shown that adopting a phone-free school policy is one of the most impactful steps you can take to enhance student educational outcomes, behavior, and well-being.” A poll from September 2024 found that 85 percent of NYSUT members were in favor of a “bell-to-bell” ban. More broadly, according to a recent Siena Research Institute poll, school smartphone bans have bipartisan public support with 60 percent of New York voters supporting the ban and an equal amount across the political spectrum.
Still, the support for cell phone restrictions in schools in New York is not universal. Dr. Katheryne T. Leigh-Osroosh, assistant professor of counseling, school and educational psychology from the University at Buffalo, for example, has noted that, “While I appreciate the effort to examine the impact of cell phone use on learning, I wonder if these bans are more reactionary than preventative.” She further stated that schools should help students foster healthy relationships with technology and cautioned that losing access to their phones might feel like an emotional loss for some students, similar to the grief experienced when losing a significant part of their identity. Recently, New York State Educational Department Commissioner Betty Rosa and Board of Regents Chancellor Lester Young expressed particular concerns about the proposed cellphone ban in the wake of the Trump administration’s efforts to deport undocumented immigrants, stating that restricting a student’s cellphone access may create trauma and anxiety in students if they are unable to communicate with their family.
Cell Phone Bans and Crisis Situations
Concerns about students’ access to cell phones are not only limited to the recent events noted above, but have also been tied to the devices’ role in communications during other crisis events, such as a school shooting. A September 2024 poll by the National Parents Union, a parent advocacy group, found that of those parents whose child takes a phone to school, 78 percent wanted their child to have a phone for use during emergencies—more than any other reason offered. The rationale behind permitting cell phones is that they would improve timely notifications to first responders and enable parents to more quickly check on their child’s safety.
Yet there also are criticisms of cell phone use during emergencies. They can be a distraction when used to text, call, and even livestream an emergency, impacting situational awareness. They can draw unwanted attention to locations where individuals may be hiding and are often prone to failure due to cellular signals becoming overloaded, which also can impact communications among first responders. Moreover, information shared out by students to parents and peers through texts or calls during a crisis often is inaccurate according to Katherine Schweit, founder of the FBI’s Active Shooter Program, leading to further confusion and disorder.
Importantly, these considerations are typically discussed in the context of mass school shootings which, though exceedingly rare events, are contributing to the discussion about cell phone restrictions. When weighing a ban or restrictions on cell phones and other devices in schools, stakeholders should consider how these devices are situated in a broader multimodal emergency notification system (e.g., pairing cell phone-focused communications through texts and calls with digital signage and/or social media, radio, and television messages) and how they could best be used effectively during other crises, such as fires, hazmat, or weather-related situations (e.g., tornadoes, earthquakes) and not only in a school shooting.[1] Similarly, the rarity of school shootings can be weighed alongside the broader impacts of cell phones in the school environment when considering such bans. So, too, can these considerations be made with respect to the availability of alternate strategies and technologies, such as systems that allow for near-instant communication through text messages and audio calls, and can be used to issue official, verified statements from school leaders to parents in the event of a crisis.
Conclusion
More research is needed to fully understand the impacts of cell phone use during school days and the efficacy of cell phone bans, but emerging reports from districts who have implemented these policies show promising results, such as decreased behavioral issues and increased student engagement. These recent policies vary, however: being implemented at different scales—state, district, or individual school; restricting cell phones solely during instructional time or throughout the school day with a “bell-to-bell” ban; being monitored and enforced by teachers, staff, and/or administrators; and, using a variety of mechanisms from instructing students to store their device in their locker or backpack, to daily collections by school staff, or using storage tools like phone pouches. New York policymakers will need to prudently and carefully consider how to balance the best interests of students, parents, and educators in determining if and how they implement a statewide policy. Additionally, as other technologies are introduced—or re-introduced—to supplement communications in light of cell phone bans, as in the case of pagers, policymakers will need to consider how to adapt their policies to meet the ever-changing technological landscape in education.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Mathilda Scott is a policy analyst at the Rockefeller Institute of Government
Jaclyn Schildkraut is executive director of the Regional Gun Violence Research Consortium at the Rockefeller Institute of Government
[1] For example, during a school shooting, students and staff are likely to be in lockdown for an extended period of time, even though the event itself lasts only a few minutes, as law enforcement works to clear the building. A classroom management strategy can be used for students to update their parents several at a time to reduce the burden on communication systems.